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Canonization Themes: Three major themes can be discerned from a review of the formation of the New Testament as it has been known for most of the past 1,500+ years:
- The 27 books today recognized as the New Testament (NT) canon emerged as the result not of any single event, but gradually over a 3-4 century process of accumulated tradition, advocacy and widening acceptance. Critical criteria or tests increasingly applied to assess which books belonged were: (a) authorship by an apostle or immediate follower (as inspired scripture); (b) regular church usage; and (c) consistency with then prevailing orthodox belief.
- Perhaps paradoxically, the existence of a canon can be credited to Christian heretics. Individuals and doctrines viewed as outside the mainstream essentially forced the orthodox church to decide which written works should be presented as authentic.
- While the current list of 27 books has been in place since the 4th century, there is reason to suggest that the canon is not necessarily closed. This viewpoint has been shared by others down through the last 1,500 years – albeit by a small but distinctive minority.
When Was the New Testament Written? Most scholars agree that New Testament (NT) books were written beginning about 45-50 AD to perhaps as late as the first decade of the 2nd century. The dating and authorship of only two of 27 NT books – Paul’s epistle to the Romans and his first epistle to the Corinthians – have been almost universally accepted by scholars and theologians up through the 20th century. The other books have all engendered some level of controversy – some more than others.
The four gospels are generally believed to have been written between 50-90 AD – with evangelicals tending to favor earlier dates. By the early second century AD, church leaders (such as Papias) stated that Matthew was composed first. However, today many modern scholars make a case for Mark as the first to be written (especially those that postulate the early formation of a separate sayings or Q gospel).
The earliest written Pauline epistle is likely either I Thessalonians (about 50-51) or possibly Galatians (48-49). Some suggest that James may have been written as early as 45 AD.
What are the Earliest Extant Manuscripts? Interestingly, the earliest known manuscript fragment of any NT book is from John’s gospel and dates to about 125 AD. Manuscripts of Greek portions of the heretical Gospel of Thomas (re-discovered in 1900) date to pre-200. Other papyrus documents for the canonical gospels and the Apocalypse (Revelation) date to the 250 AD period. More complete collections of NT writings include the Codex Vaticanus (c. 325-350 AD), Codex Sinaiticus (c. 350) and the Codex Alexandrinus (c. 400).
Who Wrote the Books of the New Testament? Church tradition assigns authorship to those whose names have long been associated with their respective writings. Modern scholars question these assumptions, for example, suggesting that books such as the Petrine or Johannine epistles may have been written by followers of these disciples rather than by the disciples themselves.
Even within the early church of the third and fourth centuries, there was debate as to whether Revelation was written by John the apostle or another John the Elder. Perhaps the most uncertain book – in terms of authorship – is Hebrews. Some early Christians attributed Hebrews to Paul; some to Paul via the hand of Silas. Many simply could not ascribe authorship with certainty to any individual.
Of all the NT writings, Pauline authorship is widely accepted for a number of epistles but with more debate surrounding authorship of Ephesians, Colossians, II Thessalonians, I/II Timothy and Titus.
How Were Early Writings Assembled into a New Testament Canon? For more than a century after Christ, oral tradition was favored over a written NT. The early 2nd century patriarch Papias stated: "For I did not think what was to be gotten out of books would profit me as much as what came from the living and abiding voice."
The impetus for a written word came from the mid-2nd century when Marcion, a heretic merchant and ship owner, offered his version of a canon – covering only the written works of Luke and Paul’s epistles (but only if edited). During this period, Clement of Alexandria offered his version of a suitable "sacred" list, accepting 22 of the 27 current NT books plus another nine documents eventually excluded.
In the early 3rd century, the term "New Testament" was first coined by the prominent theologian Tertullian – who also later became a heretic. The earliest definitive statement of an authorized set of Christian writings – the Muratorian Canon – also comes from this period. All but five of the current 27 NT books were recognized; those excluded were Hebrews, James, I/II Peter, and III John.
The debate about which books belonged in and out continued through the reign of Constantine – the first Roman emperor to convert to Christianity. In 363, the Synod of Laodicea became the first official church-wide body to take action regarding a New Testament canon; unfortunately the resulting list of books approved to be read in churches is no longer available.
In 367, Athanasius, the bishop of Alexandria and chief defender of the Nicene Creed, compiled a list covering all 27 books of the New Testament canon. In 397, this canon was ratified by the Council of Carthage. This was a local rather than church-wide council but nonetheless set the tone for the books becoming widely accepted by the Latin Church.
Disputed Books: Works whose canonical values were widely disputed but eventually accepted included Hebrews (uncertain authorship), James (pro-Judaism leanings), Revelation and II Peter (apocalyptic fervor). Also of concern to many in the early church were II/III John, and Jude.
Churches in the western Roman Empire were most concerned with James and Hebrews. Eastern churches saw less need for a canon and were most opposed to inclusion of II Peter and Revelation.
Writings Considered but Not Included: A wide variety of other writings were viewed as important by some churches or theologians in the first 3-4 centuries but not others. Among the more prominent of these are the Gospel of Thomas, Gospel of Matthias, I Clement, letters attributed to Ignatius bishop of Antioch, the Epistle of Barnabas, The Shepherd of Hermas, Didache (or early teaching of the Lord), and several Petrine books.
Final Canonization: Though generally accepted by the late fourth century, this New Testament would not be formally canonized by any church-wide body for more than another millenium. The spark for formal canonization came from none other than the protestant Martin Luther – who explicitly stated that the books of Hebrews, James (in particular), Jude and Revelation were of inferior worth, not belonging to "the true and certain chief books of the New Testament."
Luther’s thoughts were echoed by others of his time – even by some from within the Catholic church itself. However, these opinions were quickly and forcefully addressed. At the Council of Trent in 1546, biblical content was made an absolute article of Faith by the Roman church. The Vulgate was declared to be "authentic." And the Council further proclaimed:
If, however, anyone does not receive these books in their entirety, with all their parts, as they are accustomed to be read in the Catholic Church and are contained in the ancient Latin Vulgate as sacred and canonical, and knowingly and deliberately rejects the aforesaid traditions, let him be Anathema.
Concluding Thoughts: Since the days of the early church, it has been important to protect the purity of the gospel by excluding writings that clearly appeared to be in conflict with what came to be perceived as orthodox teaching. However, this very process of exclusion has shortchanged Christianity of diversity in understanding and expression.
While orthodoxy has demanded a single set of scriptures, there have been dissenting voices down through the centuries – involving even such luminaries such as Martin Luther. A question remains – should the canon be considered as open or closed?
By renewing the discussion of canonicity, there may be opportunity for experiencing the divine in ways not possible via adherence to a more narrow orthodoxy. The Jesus of John’s gospel would say: "If you continue in my word, you are truly my disciples; and you will know the truth, and the truth will make you free."
The Jesus of the non-canonical Gospel attributed to Thomas carries this thought one step further: "Those who seek should not stop seeking until they find, When they find, they will be disturbed. When they are disturbed, they will marvel, and will rule over all." For the Jesus of Thomas, the journey is the reward. If Thomas is right, we may be selling ourselves short – by remaining within the familiar space of a 2,000 year old comfort zone.
This summary is adapted from portions of the chapter "Canonization of the New Testament," excerpted from the approximately 115 page book Building the Bible.
Please click here for more information on Building the Bible.
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